Project Entpreneurship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Project Entpreneurship - Essay Example there are many cases of teen pregnancy on more than one occasion† (Anand 2011, para. 1). We could refer many studies and surveys conducted around the western countries regarding teenage pregnancy. It would certainly prove that teenage pregnancies are increasing as well as abortions too. In developing countries it is related with child marriages, but in western countries it is related with before marriage sex relations. So in order to prevent this, certain measures should be taken and implemented. So we planned to conduct a campaign in NHS Bedfordshire. NHS Bedfordshire schools are part of healthy school programs and they have taken many measures to ensure the health of young people. They already have a teenage pregnancy unit, known as Bedfordshire teenage pregnancy unit. So our plan is to conduct a campaign in Bedfordshire campuses in order to create strong awareness against teenage pregnancy and to prevent it. Business Project: The current business project that we are aiming a t is the various kinds of ways to effectively plan and implement the planning programme. The planning program, in this context, is the discussion on an illegal activity namely the teenage pregnancy. ... The discussion on the campaign is mainly aiming to create the awareness on the teenagers, especially the boys with the main intention of eradicating teenage pregnancy. Various methods are identified for the reduction of the teenage pregnancy, but before that there are various problems identified and they have to be  clearly understood and steps have to be taken accordingly for reducing teenage pregnancy. The main problem found behind teenage pregnancy was the single parenting culture in the UK country. The single parenting of the children may lead to the various adverse effects on the behavior of the child and they may lead to the various mal practices like the usage of the drugs, alcohol and prone to various kinds of syndromes, which lead to the dynamic life styles and culture. The main reasons for a teenager falling into certain kinds of acts are due to the non-controlling of them and they doesn’t not find adequate time for successful parenting. The various kinds of abstin ence approach can help the children in reducing the teenage pregnancy. We should be able to educate the teenaged children about those approaches accordingly and should give proper guidance on sex issues prevailing in the country and the after effects of those actions. Sex education should be made compulsory among the teenagers and they should be given complete advices and suggestions on preventing teenage pregnancy and to prevent themselves from any kind of the abuse. A proper counseling should be given to children as well as the parents about how to prevent pregnancy. Sexual education should be given priority and use of contraception methods should be conveyed to the teenagers and to the parents for proper behaving. Volunteering and various legal aids should be imposed to the teenage

Successful lawlessness Essay Example for Free

Successful lawlessness Essay The League was virtually dead and, during the Japanese invasion of China in 1931, the League in reply to Chinese appeal performed its duty of saving the peace by merely passing resolution sympathizing in the Chinese cause. The League now became a passive onlooker of the aggression of Japan. The Aeschylus, the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia, and the outbreak of World War II following Hitler’s attack on Poland were events in the face of which the League acted as a helpless spectator. But when in 1939, Russia attacked Finland; the League of Nations suddenly became conscious about its duty as a champion of peace and expelled Russia from its membership with unusual and unnatural haste. The League maintained its existence till April 1946 when it voted its abolition in a meeting called at Geneva. Thus, there was an unbroken crescendo of successful lawlessness and the League had to remain as a helpless spectator.

A Problem Statement Of Wireless Networks Information Technology Essay

A Problem Statement Of Wireless Networks Information Technology Essay A search process in unstructured wireless network generally employee whole network due to this it will generally carried out flooding problem. Existing system contains flooding algorithm to represent search process but this system address lack of search problem and inefficiency factors. The flooding algorithm needs to search on each node on over unstructured network to find out property which consumes an extra time. Energy Rate allocation and flooding problems are main aspects in unstructured networks. It leads high computational problems and which consumes extra processing time. To improve any wireless network environment performance it necessary to accessing structure in wireless network. The energy consumption is a key aspect in wireless network according to the random walk process will unbalance the energy and dynamic query search process. A native approach of flooding random walk algorithm will lead flooding problems and unbalanced energy rate allocation will be lead to network life time problems 1.2 Aim and Objectives Aim: The aim of this project is to design a distributed application to improve search efficiency in unstructured wireless network by reducing transactional cost Objectives To design a distributed application in unstructured wireless network using NS-2 simulator To take an advantage of biased random walk algorithm in on going distributed search application for avoiding number of transmissions To exploit a network model by using NS-2 simulator by representing uniform nodes and determine search protocol for calculating number of packets needed to represent search process To calculate time taken to cover the entire network after initiation of a search from a randomly selected initial node in designed network. To calculate the number of search items found after certain time steps from initiation of a search. 1.4 Proposed Methodologies This project mainly deals with unstructured wireless mobile network. An unstructured search has to potentially explore the whole network; as such, it is generally carried out by flooding. This project will improve a search process in unstructured wireless network by reducing flooding configuring uniform nodes using NS-2 simulator To analyze dynamic search and route discovery problems in various networks. To reduce number of transmissions during searching any property by establishing uniform nodes network using simulation methodologies. To reduce hitting time to the target node and expect number of transmission by implementing biased random walk by constructing uniform nodes in unstructured wireless networks. To evaluate a dynamic search efficiency by configuring uniform nodes for unstructured wireless network by applying simulation methodology. 1.5 Expected Artifact and outcomes: To design a distributed application to improve search efficiency in unstructured wireless networks and will evaluate this project results using NS-2 Simulator which will show dynamic search on over uniform nodes. 2 Research 2.1 General background to the subject: This research addresses the dynamic search problems in unstructured wireless network environment. The research considers search oriented problems and query computational problems in distributed dynamic applications. The high level data accessing could lead energy consumption issues. This research review the background study of location based spatial query processing on and snap shot query processing. The specified query processing supports only limited data level. To over come this difficulties here it need to review index method for managing static and dynamic data. This index process operates on over spatial query as well as snap shot which will be applicable on both data level. This research accomplish knowledge of query process in unstructured wireless network environment. Background knowledge of query monitoring in wireless broadcast environment . The background study will be conducted by reviewing various research papers, journals, books and websites. I will accomplish the relevant information by considering key words. Which might be use full gathering an appropriate data 2.2 Study on specific issues: The main aim of this project is to tackling dynamic search problems in wireless networks and to improve path discovery in wireless network during promoting dynamic search on over unstructured networks. To achieve efficient search on over unstructured network, it needs to review back ground study of various search algorithms such as flooding algorithm, random walk algorithm and dynamic search algorithm. This research mainly focuses on over unstructured wireless network by considering dynamic search problems 2.3 Technologies for implementation: The implementation of this project will be divided into various modules and layers. The entire implementation work will be carried out using NS-2 simulator. The simulator will design a wireless network with group of nodes. To configure network in terms of client- server architecture. Enhance the communication by promoting ad hoc protocol and compute energy rate level and consumption level by distributing message across client nodes. The entire code will be designed in Tool command language (TCL), C++ language and with combination of OTCL 2.4 Analysis of Existing Work: The problem statement address the search problem in unstructured network environment, to analyze the search process problems and flooding problem during evaluating dynamic search process on over unstructured network. To addresses such kind of problems by conducting an experimental review on over static and dynamic search process and evaluate various search process algorithm to measure performance factors. In this analysis which shows the resource consumption problems and computation problems during evaluating dynamic search. 3 Technical Requirements The proposed study analyzes the technical requirements by considering the problem statements and proposed study issues and which defines the functional requirements of proposed system. The functional requirements of proposed system should be classified into different processes; these processes have been configured in terms of input, transactions and output. The system should be capable to reduce energy consumption level and which is capable of distributing data across different sensor networks Proposed technical requirements are as follows Software Requirement: Ns2,Network Animator NAM, XGRAPH, TCL C++ programming. Hardware Requirement: P4 processor with 2.4ghz speed, 80GB hard disk, 512 MB RAM Communication protocol requirement: DSDV, AODV, DSR User interface requirement: NAM (network animator ) for dynamic visualization 4 Design/ Structural information 4.1 Development model: To develop this project here I will employee spiral life cycle model, I will classified this model into different phases, this model is useful for recycling purpose, this life cycle model basically enhance new requirements with out distributing previous work, this model is most appropriate for distributed applications. 4.2 Design and implementation model: To analyze the problem statements by reviewing existing system processes and finalize the functional requirements of proposed system, these functionalities will be consider as a case studies. These case studies will classified into modules and sub modules. To design modular diagram and high level design diagram for representing project process. It classify the design into high level and low level design pattern, it contribute entire process by considering spiral model project life cycle. 5 Data Acquisition I will gather relevant data to develop this project by referring various web sites, books and journals. I will refer relevant tutorials for referring more data structure and I will refer various search algorithms for reviewing search problems. The most of the information i will get from websites, forums, journals 6 Testing and analysis of Results: To test the project results by generating various test case reports and validation the process by giving data inputs. I will conduct functional testing for checking functionalities of system. The unit test and integration test should be apply for finding errors in system code and integrate all modules and verify operation by evaluating integration test case 7 Improvements: To improve the data Acquisition part by configuring entire network components. To determine processes in data acquisition by simulating data access 8 Overall evolution: The overall report evaluate the basic structure of project, here it schedules entire work by representing various task structure, the specified task should need to complete in given time, the overall structure should be organize end to end project structure. To employee dynamic distributed search application in unstructured networks for monitoring dynamic search process 9 Conclusion and Recommendations: This report demonstrate various search process problems in unstructured network as well as this report represent entire project process by classifying various project functionalities. Which also demonstrate project requirements and technical usage strcture for developing distributed dynamic application and classify proposed method for resolving spatial queries problems by establishing dynamic network model using network simulator, the proposed model will identify problem statement in existing system and reconstruct entire network by accepting dynamic search process.

Free Essay - The Scarlet Letter and the Christian Utopia :: Scarlet Letter essays

The Scarlet Letter and the Christian Utopia Throughout the novel The Scarlet Letter, Nathaniel Hawthorne develops the Christian Utopia to present to the reader the ideals and way of life the Puritans faced. The main character, Hester Prynne, commits a crime so unfathomable by the society yet she was able to live her life independent from the norms and values. Judgments of society's moral transgressions have altered since the Puritan era in such a way that we are no longer severely condemned for our principles. People are forgiven for their sins, but nonetheless they are forever persecuted to live with the shame such as Hester did in the novel. The Puritans believed that the Christian Utopia could be achieved by obeying a certain rule. Spirituality played a key component in dictating their lives. Hester for example, did not go against her community on purpose, but acted independently and followed the path of human nature. She still possessed religious morals. Yet this is disregarded by her act of adultery. In society during that time period, no matter how much good one does, the latter is what takes hold. Thus Hester is labeled to wearing the scarlet letter "A", in addition to having to take care of her fatherless child. Today, people do turn to religion for guidance, but not to the point where religion commands every action a person makes. People have drifted away from the black and white customs and adapted color and emotion to the path of life. People are given the opportunity to give up a child born out of wedlock to an adoption agency. Single mothers can attend schools with daycares. This is far from what H ester could ever imagine. Hawthorne develops Hester's character in an exaggeration through the usage of symbolism, to further emphasis the level of severity of her crime. "She clutched the child so fiercely to her breast, that it sent forth a cry; she turned her eyes downward at the scarlet letter, and even touched it with her finger, to assure herself that the infant and the shame were real" (Hawthorne 41). The Puritans viewed man as an animal, as if people needed to be controlled. Hawthorne shows that the balance between Man and Morality is not equal in the face of the Puritans.

“A Framework for Understanding Poverty by Ruby K. Payne”

The book entitled â€Å"Framework for Understanding Poverty† is a famous book of a former school teacher Ruby K. Payne. I learnt that Ruby Payne is an expert of poverty. She also talks about her understanding of mentality of middle class and wealth.he book has become a text book for poverty workers, teachers and managers of schools to know about the three categories of poverty; generational (for two or more generations) poverty, situational poverty (because of a sad event like disease, death of earning member of family or divorce).The definitions of three poverty types that Ruby Payne gives make sense. The reason of split behaviors, ethics, individuality of three poverty types is stated in financial aspects, she explains   as clearly visible among poverty stricken and is she also covered this identification among wealthy. This approach, that it is not money alone but a lot of other factors have an influence over people, is quite holistic.The book on Poverty written by Ruby P ayne advises that every one in education field from teachers to administrators at all levels of education ‘must read’ the Payne book, which is a boisterous advise. An author of a finance and poverty book can not be so demanding and dogmatic.It could be useful for some having congruent ideas with Ruby Payne but not all will think in her way. It is very useful to understanding the point of view of Dr. Ruby Payne on socio economic reasons and characteristics of poverty.  The good part of her scientific discussion is her suggesting the details of support systems. She suggests focusing on coping techniques, knowing about the various emotional and financial factors that put limitations, and complexities of relationships they hold with similar background social fraternity and then she suggests that the procedural communication and habit of positive talk should be taught to the poverty background students, and how it would help the poor students learn and perform better than their present performance.The Theme of the BookThe book makes us realize the poverty in vivid detail and its entire backdrop of why the cycle of poverty is difficult to break. She emphasizes that poverty is not merely a situation of having less money than they need, but it is struggling in a domain of definite rules, separate feelings, and poor information that prevails over the methods of making   relations and creating a life among poor. The book gives us a useful quiz about survival on its page fifty seventh, which helps understanding contours of poverty.The objective of the book that runs through all chapters of the book is demystifying the myths of poverty with an intension to make us know how to break the poverty cycle.The aim of Ruby Payne appears to be educating all the stakeholders in School education system and education establishments, to make them focus on poor child that they learn in a better way after knowing their social and cultural background and most importantly their emotional mind makeup. This truly helps the teacher and administrators to do a better job in becoming mentors and role models for poor students who emulate them.The process of poverty should be tackled scientifically by training the students certain needed soft skills that poor parents could not teach to their children.The examples given in the book are fantastic such as, for poor, how they learn to look for safety of your clothes at Laundromat, how they engage and entertain their friends and close people by telling stories, and for a middle class person, the knowledge of use of a credit card or library card, earning loyalty from a household employee and creating a veil of seclusion and reserve around for the wealthy.

Lifes of Rizal in Hongkong and Macao Essay

Haunted by enemies and threatened by friars, Rizal was forced to leave Philippines for the second time. It was February 1888 then. Rizal at 27 was an embittered victim of human iniquities, a disillusioned dreamer, and a frustrated reformer. This was the start of Rizal’s second travel. On February 3, 1888, after six months of stay in Calamba, Rizal left Manila for Hong Kong on board the Zafiro. He was sad and sick during the crossing of the choppy China Sea. He did not get off the ship when it made a stopover at Amoy, because he was sick, it was raining and the city was dirty. He arrived in Hong Kong on February 8. In Hong Kong, Rizal stayed at Victoria Hotel. He was welcomed by the Filipino community in Hong Kong. During this time, a Spaniard, Jose Varanda, was shadowing Rizal’s movements in Hong Kong. It is believed that he was ordered to spy on Rizal. On February 18, Rizal accompanied by Basa, boarded the ferry steamer Kiu-Kiang for Macao. He was surprised to see a familiar figure among the passengers—Sainz de Varanda. Rizal described Macao as a small, low and gloomy. There are many junks, sampans, but few steamers, it looks sad and is almost dead-like. The two stayed in at the home of Don Juan Francisco Lecaros who was married to a Portuguese lady. During his two day stay in Macao, he visited the theater, casino, cathedral and churches, pagodas and botanical gardens and the bazaars. He also saw the famous Grotto of Camoens. In the evening of February 19, he witnessed a Catholic procession wherein the devotees were dressed in blue and purple dresses and were carrying unlighted candles. On February 20, Rizal and Basa returned to Hong Kong on board the ferry steamer Kiu-Kiang. A Landmark in Honor of Rizal’s Visit in Hong Kong Rizal stayed in Hong Kong for two weeks. There he studied the Chinese way of life, language, drama and customs. Rizal noticed some experiences and wrote them in his diary. Some of them include the noisy celebration of the Chinese New Year which lasted from February 11th to 13th. There were continuous explosion of firecrackers and he himself fired many at the window of his hotel. He also observed the boisterous Chinese theater, the marathon Lauriat party, which was the longest meal in the world; the Dominican Order was the richest religious order in Hong Kong, and the cemeteries. On February 22, 1888, Rizal left Hong Kong on board the Oceanic, an American steamer and his destination was Japan. Rizal did not like the meals on board but liked the ship because it was clean and efficiently managed. Chapter 11 In Hong Kong and Macao 1888 Hounded by powerful enemies, Rizal was forced to leave his country for a second time in February 1888. He was then a full- grown man of 27 years of age, a practicing physician, and a recognized man-of-letters. The first time he went aboard in June 1882, he was a mere lad of 21, a youthful student in search of wisdom in the Old World, a romantic idealist with beautiful dreams of emancipating his people from bondage by the magic power of his pen. Times had changed. Rizal at 27 was an embittered victim of human iniquities, a disillusioned dreamer, a flustrated reformer. The Trip to Hong Kong. On February 3, 1888, after a short stay of six months in his beloved Calamba, Rizal left Manila for Hong Kong on board the Zafiro. He was sick and sad during the crossing of the choppy China Sea. He did not get off his ship when it made brief stopover at Amoy on February 7. for three reasons: (1) he was not feeling well, (2) it was raining hard, and (3) he heard that the city was dirty. He arrived in Hong Kong on February 8. During his stay in Hong Kong, a British colony, Rizal wrote a letter to Blumentritt, dated February 16, 1888, expressing his bitterness. In Hong Kong, Rizal stayed at Victoria Hotel. He was welcomed by the Filipino residents, including Jose Maria Basa, Balbino Mauricio, and Manuel Yriarte, (son of Francisco Yriarte, alcalde mayor of Laguna). A Spaniard, Jose Sainz de Varanda, who was a former secretary of Governor General Terrero, shadowed Rizal’s movement in Hong Kong. It is believed that he was commissioned by the Spanish authorities to spy on Rizal. Hong Kong, wrote Rizal to Blumentritt on February 16, 1888, is a small, but very clean city. Many Portuguese, Hindus, English, Chinese, and Jews live in it. There are some Filipinos, the majority of whom being those who had been exiled to the Marianas Islands in 1872. They are poor, gentle, and timid. Formerly they were rich mechanics

Free Essays on Myth

Myths You are probably here because you are interested in Greek myths. Here are some short summaries of the most popular myths. Little Hermes Hermes was the son of Zeus and Maia, a nymph. He was born already walking and talking. The day he was born, Hermes constructed the lyre, a kind of harp. Then he stole fifty of Apollo's sheep, sacrificing two of them to the gods. Being the god of thieves, Hermes cleverly concealed all of his tracks. However, Apollo was the god of prophecy, so he found out that Hermes had stolen his sheep. Hermes then had to exchange his lyre for the sheep. Then the two gods became friends. The Kidnapping of Persephone Persephone was a young maiden, the daughter of Demeter, the earth mother. It came to pass that Hades fell in love with her. He kidnapped her one day, taking her to his underworld kingdom. Demeter was very grievous à ¯Ãƒ ¥Ãƒ ·Ãƒ «Ãƒ ¼Ãƒ ­Ãƒ »Ãƒ © when she found out about her daughter's disappearance. She left Olympus and wandered in the form of an old woman. Because of her absence, there was a great famine. Finally Zeus sent Hermes to Hades to bring Persephone back. Before letting her go, Hades gave her seven pomegranate à °Ãƒ ­Ãƒ ² ( à ¯Ãƒ «Ãƒ ® ) seeds to eat. Later it turned out that because of this she had to go back to him. So now Persephone spends seven months in the underworld, which are the cold, lifeless months. The remaining warm, sunny months she spends with her mother back on Earth. Don't look back!! Orpheus could make such beautiful music that even trees and animals would crowd around him to listen. Orpheus was in love with the lovely Eurydice (à Ãƒ ¢Ãƒ °Ãƒ ¨Ãƒ ¨Ãƒ ª). But she got bitten by a snake and died. Orpheus was inconsolable à ¥Ãƒ §Ãƒ ³Ãƒ ²Ãƒ ¥Ãƒ ¸Ãƒ ­Ãƒ »Ãƒ ©. He went down to the underworld, playing his music as skillfully as he could, mesmerizing à ¨Ãƒ ¯Ãƒ ­Ãƒ ®Ãƒ ²Ãƒ ¨Ãƒ §Ãƒ ¨Ãƒ °Ãƒ ®Ãƒ ¢Ãƒ ²Ãƒ ¼; à ®Ãƒ ·Ãƒ °Ãƒ ®Ãƒ ¢Ãƒ »Ãƒ ¢Ãƒ ²Ãƒ ¼ the guards. Moved by his music, Hades told him to go back, promising to send Eurydice after him. ... Free Essays on Myth Free Essays on Myth The cultural area known as Mesoamerica covers most of Southern Mexico and Central America. It’s topography and ecology include semi arid deserts in the north, mountainous terrains and steamy rainforests in the South. To the East lies the Gulf coast and the Yucatan peninsula, a limestone jetty with a system of underground rivers, where water is scarce. It shares some distinct cultural traits that were disseminated by what is known as the Olmec of the Gulf Coast. The Olmecs (1000 - 400 B.C.) are considered â€Å"the mother culture† because they were the first people to have developed a centralized government. They were the first long-distance traders of Mesoamerica and apparently spread â€Å"civilization† as well as their trade goods. They had a strong influence on peoples as far south as Guatemala and as far east as the Zapotec center of Monte Alban. They were the first to create the famous Mesoamerican ballgame which later was included in the cosmology of the Maya, the Teotihuacanos, the Zapotecs, the Mixtecs, the Toltecs, and later the Aztecs or Mexica. It is to them that scholars have attempted to link the Maya and Central Mexican Calendars as well as early writing. The calendric system of the Maya and of Central Mexico are based on a numeric system that included the concept of zero. Zeros mark completion and are part of a cycle. The calendar is really a calendric system with a 360 day solar count with 18 months containing 20 days each. Each day has its own name. At the end of the 18 months is one small month with 5 days of fear and calamity. This was intermeshed with a 260 day ritual calendar of 20 day names and 13 numbers. These two calendars created what is known as the calendar round that functioned like two circular gears that pushed time in a spiral motion. The calendar round does not repeat any of its combination of days for a period of 52 years. The Aztecs renewed their cycle with a â€Å"new fire ritualï ¿ ½... Free Essays on Myth Myths You are probably here because you are interested in Greek myths. Here are some short summaries of the most popular myths. Little Hermes Hermes was the son of Zeus and Maia, a nymph. He was born already walking and talking. The day he was born, Hermes constructed the lyre, a kind of harp. Then he stole fifty of Apollo's sheep, sacrificing two of them to the gods. Being the god of thieves, Hermes cleverly concealed all of his tracks. However, Apollo was the god of prophecy, so he found out that Hermes had stolen his sheep. Hermes then had to exchange his lyre for the sheep. Then the two gods became friends. The Kidnapping of Persephone Persephone was a young maiden, the daughter of Demeter, the earth mother. It came to pass that Hades fell in love with her. He kidnapped her one day, taking her to his underworld kingdom. Demeter was very grievous à ¯Ãƒ ¥Ãƒ ·Ãƒ «Ãƒ ¼Ãƒ ­Ãƒ »Ãƒ © when she found out about her daughter's disappearance. She left Olympus and wandered in the form of an old woman. Because of her absence, there was a great famine. Finally Zeus sent Hermes to Hades to bring Persephone back. Before letting her go, Hades gave her seven pomegranate à °Ãƒ ­Ãƒ ² ( à ¯Ãƒ «Ãƒ ® ) seeds to eat. Later it turned out that because of this she had to go back to him. So now Persephone spends seven months in the underworld, which are the cold, lifeless months. The remaining warm, sunny months she spends with her mother back on Earth. Don't look back!! Orpheus could make such beautiful music that even trees and animals would crowd around him to listen. Orpheus was in love with the lovely Eurydice (à Ãƒ ¢Ãƒ °Ãƒ ¨Ãƒ ¨Ãƒ ª). But she got bitten by a snake and died. Orpheus was inconsolable à ¥Ãƒ §Ãƒ ³Ãƒ ²Ãƒ ¥Ãƒ ¸Ãƒ ­Ãƒ »Ãƒ ©. He went down to the underworld, playing his music as skillfully as he could, mesmerizing à ¨Ãƒ ¯Ãƒ ­Ãƒ ®Ãƒ ²Ãƒ ¨Ãƒ §Ãƒ ¨Ãƒ °Ãƒ ®Ãƒ ¢Ãƒ ²Ãƒ ¼; à ®Ãƒ ·Ãƒ °Ãƒ ®Ãƒ ¢Ãƒ »Ãƒ ¢Ãƒ ²Ãƒ ¼ the guards. Moved by his music, Hades told him to go back, promising to send Eurydice after him. ...

Pre-Trip Inspections Essay Essay Example

Pre Pre-Trip Inspections Essay Essay Pre-Trip Inspections Essay Essay Road accident is a major security concern in the main roads. There are several causes of route accidents but the unexpected events in our roads are ever blamed on the driver. This is because it is assumed that the driver is in full control over the vehicle. However. the major causes of route slaughter in any portion of the universe include mechanical jobs and failures in the vehicle. bad main road designs. unequal route care or foolhardy drive or a combination. It is unfortunate to observe that despite the high figure of people diing on the roads. the route accidents can be prevented to some degree. The Department of Transport every bit good as the jurisprudence enforcement bureaus has made several efforts to implement traffic regulations in order to cut down the figure of route slaughter and related deceases. One of these steps has been the debut of pre-trip review. This paper will analyse the different facets and importance of pre-trip review as a safety step. Pre-Trip Inspection The pre-trip reviews are compulsory demand by the Department of Transport as one of the steps to cut down route slaughter. However. this regulation is one of the most profaned regulations by commercial vehicle drivers today. Furthermore. bulk of the members of the populace are incognizant of these demands. Majority believes that a pre-trip review is an review done by the driver before he or she gets behind the wheel but that is non true. All commercial vehicle drivers are required by the jurisprudence to transport out and log a pre-trip and post-trip review as stipulated in the Highway Traffic Act. A commercial vehicle is designated as any vehicle deliberation over four and half tones. a public service vehicle with a capacity greater than eleven including the driver or a school coach. Pre-trip review of commercial vehicles is carried out by the driver before the first trip every twenty-four hours. In some instances. one trip may take several yearss. In such instances. the pre-trip review must be done before the trip starts and subsequent reviews should be done non later that each remainder halt ( Broemsen. 2009 ) . The review demands by the Department of Transport require that the driver of a commercial vehicle should be satisfied that the vehicle is in good operating status before the start of the trip. The driver can merely be assured of the safety of the vehicle on the route if he or she reviews the last driver study on the status of the vehicle. The driver is expected to subscribe the study to bespeak that he reviewed the study and all the reported mechanical mistakes have been repaired. A commercial vehicle driver can merely be satisfied that the vehicle is in good working status if all the indispensable accoutrements of the vehicle are in order. This includes the brakes. brakes connexions. manus brakes. maneuvering wheel. headlamps. signals. wipers. driving mirrors. tyres and matching devices. Some of these accoutrements such as mirrors need to be checked any clip during the trip whenever the vehicle is parked ( Federal Register. 2006 ) . Safety of the vehicle. lading. the driver and other route users is an of import ground why the Department of Transport enforces pre-trip review. The jurisprudence therefore requires the truck driver to guarantee that all the exigency equipments are in order during the review. The driver is considered to hold committed traffic offense incase he or she fails to utilize the exigency equipment whenever there is demand. Many commercial vehicles are involved in the transit of lading. Inspection of the lading on board and the lading security system is of import before the start of the trip. The thrust should guarantee that the weight of the lading is good distributed and the security devices are in order ( Federal Register. 2006 ) . Different organisation or conveyance companies may hold different policies to better the safety and care of their commercial vehicles. Regardless of such policies. the Department of Transport requires that the driver must determine that the vehicle is in good running status before the start of the first trip. The Highway Traffic Act requires that the driver present a legible written study to the necessary authorization after the trip review. However. this is seldom done. The study should incorporate the description of the vehicle such as the home base figure. the dawdler towed or the unit figure depending on the organization’s policies. The day of the month of review and the mechanical defects noted if any should besides be recorded on the study. In instances where there are no defects or safety concern that have been noted by the driver. he or she is expected to do a statement to that consequence. The study is valid with the signature and name of the driver or the person who was responsible for the review ( Broemsen. 2009 ) . If the driver or the inspector detects or suspects any defect or safety concern. he or she should describe to the relevant authorization in conformity with the organisation or company policies. However. if the defect noted is of sensible safety concern. this should be reported instantly and the relevant steps to rectify the job be taken before the trip can get down. The jurisprudence farther requires that a driver of any commercial vehicle should hold the current transcript of the review study of the vehicle and the dawdler if any at all clip. The advantages of such pre-trip can non be underestimated. Checking the conditions of the vehicle before the start of the trip is cost effectual and increases safety. This is as a consequence of decreased holds as a consequence of dislocations which save on the cost every bit good as important decrease of accidents in the roads as a consequence of mechanical jobs that can easy be rectified before the start of the trip. By following the systematic process of review provided by the section of conveyance. the driver or inspector will transport out an effectual review within a really short clip ( Sulek. 2005 ) . A commercial vehicle such as a truck tractor can cover 1000s of stat mis without dislocations or doing sensible holds to the driver if it is taken attention of decently. Pre-trip review is one of the basic processs that are recommended for proper attention of the vehicle. The basic importance of this review is the cost saved by the conveyance company or the organisation if the guidelines are followed to the latter. Inspection ensures that the investing of the company is protected and the live of the drivers every bit good as other route users are non at hazard. Effective review ensures that common booby traps associated with the conveyance industry which are by and large expensive are avoided which saves on the running cost ( Broemsen. 2009 ) . In any conveyance concern. the greatest cost incurred by the proprietors is the care cost. It is dearly-won for the proprietor of the commercial vehicle to replace worn out parts every bit good as paying the cost of fix. The cost is much higher when the concern lost during unneeded dislocations is considered. Every clip a commercial vehicle is out of the route as a consequence of dislocations that can be avoided. the truck proprietor loses money. This in many instances leads to interrupt of the full concern in the long tally due to the associated loses. Any experient commercial vehicle driver or proprietor is cognizant of the fact that preventative steps are really of import in commercial vehicles operations if they have to remain in concern and do net income. This is true even without sing the increased safety as a consequence of timely review of the vehicles ( Sulek. 2005 ) . It is apparent that effectual pre-trip review prevents the happening of accidents and dislocations. It is considerable safer and cost effectual to mend a minor mistake detected during review that mending a monolithic dislocation on the route which may be associated with other uncalled for costs such as accidents and incommodiousnesss. Pre-trip review gives the driver the assurance in the conditions of the vehicle and the likeliness of being involved in accident as a consequence of mechanical dislocation is reduced significantly. It is estimated that bulk of accidents affecting commercial vehicles are as a consequence of mechanical dislocations and can easy be avoided by review to observe the lack before the start of the trip ( Sulek. 2005 ) . Following the pre-trip review guidelines for all commercial vehicles is hence non of import merely because it is a legal demand but is an of import process that ensures that the investing. the driver and other route users are safe. It saves on cost every bit good as lives. The commercial vehicle driver driving a faulty vehicle wittingly or unwittingly should be cognizant of the fact that he or she portions the route with other automobilists and walkers and is seting their lives at hazard ( Broemsen. 2009 ) . In a nutshell. it is a traffic offense punishable by the jurisprudence for any commercial vehicle driver to drive on the route holding non conducted the pre-trip review as stipulated in the Department of Transport counsel. The driver is apt for prosecution in a tribunal of jurisprudence if he is found driving a commercial vehicle without a transcript of the review sheet. However. as stated earlier. this is one of the most profaned compulsory ordinances in the traffic regulations and the jurisprudence hatchet mans do non see this jurisprudence every bit of import as it is expected. It is of import to observe that during the pre-trip review. the driver has over two 100 things to look into on the commercial vehicle if the review has to be effectual. This is non to state that the pre-trip review is likely to take the better portion of the driver’s twenty-four hours. The review can take less than 30 proceedingss which is much less compared to the cost of the safety hazards and dislocations incase it is non done. Even an extended review by the relevant authorization ever takes less than one hr and includes mechanical review every bit good as review of the drivers report among other things ( Broemsen. 2009 ) . One of the most of import facets the driver needs to look into is the conditions of the Surs. Cost related to tyres’ jobs is the largest individual dislocation disbursal in conveyance concern. It accounts for more than a 3rd of the care cost of commercial vehicles. It is hence really of import for the driver to pass considerable sum of clip guaranting that the Surs are in good working status before the start of the trip and during the trip whenever the vehicle is parked. Nine out of 10 commercial vehicles dislocations are caused by under hyperbolic Surs ( Federal Register. 2006 ) . Under hyperbolic Surs besides contribute to cut down lifetime of the Sur by up to a 3rd. Under hyperbolic Surs are besides responsible for fuel inefficiency and heat buildup. The driver should besides inspect the Sur togss. tear and wear which is irregular and clefts and take the necessary steps. Proper working Surs guarantee the cost of dislocations is decreased and safety is enhanced ( Federal Register. 2006 ) . Brake failure is a major cause of accident in both commercial and non commercial vehicles. Checking the interrupting systems on a regular basis is hence an of import facet of commercial vehicle review. The criterion every bit good as the parking brakes should be in good on the job conditions before the driver is satisfied to get down the day’s trip. The sum of liner should be sensible and the systems should be maintained in conformity with the guidelines. This counsel requires the driver to look into that the force per unit area systems are in good working status including the rate of gas linkage. The rate of force per unit area build up and low force per unit area sensing systems should be proper in order to give timely dismay. However. the most important cheque for the interruption systems is the fluid leakages. This is the first and most of import review a commercial vehicle driver needs to look into which can be easy noticed by fluids on the land around the vehicle. This should be followed by look intoing the coolants. fluids and oil degree in the goon ( Federal Register. 2006 ) . It is of import to guarantee that all the gages such as temperature. force per unit area. fuel and oil gages are in good on the job status. No driver in his right head can bury to look into the fuel degree instantly after turning on the vehicle. Checking the electric systems of the vehicle is an every bit of import facet of vehicle review to determine safety. The warning visible radiations. turning signals. brake signals. headlamps every bit good as the doorbells should be in good order to avoid uncalled for minor accidents due to hapless communicating with other drivers on the route. In general. the full electric constituent of vehicle should be in good on the job status. Frayed or lose wires are safety jeopardies because they can be easy exposed and possible cause fire as a consequence of short-circuiting which may be really hazardous particularly if the lading in extremely inflammable ( Federal Register. 2006 ) . Decision Due to the big figure of route slaughter in the roads affecting commercial vehicles. for the safety of the investing. the lading or riders. the driver and other route users. it is of import to guarantee that all safety steps are taken. One of the most of import safety steps is to guarantee that the vehicle is in good on the job status. The driver demand to guarantee that the truck has no mechanical mistakes by conductivity a pre-trip review. This is a demand by the jurisprudence though it is one of the most profaned mandatary traffic Torahs. Reference Broemsen. M. ( 2009 ) . Commercial Truck Maintenance: The Importance of a Pre-Trip Inspection. retrieved on 10th May 2010 from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www. goarticles. com/cgi-bin/showa. cgi? C=1598113. Federal Register ( 2006 ) . Title 49 – Transportation system: Department of Transportation Parts 300 – 399. ISBN 1577857763. ProStar Publications. Sulek. J. M. A ; Lind. M. R. ( 2005 ) . â€Å"Fail-Safe Methods for Paratransit Safety. † Journal of Public Transportation. Vol. 8. No. 4. pp 65-66

Introducing Walmart into Saudi Arabia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Introducing Walmart into Saudi Arabia - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that Saudi Arabia is regarded as one of the largest food exporters in the Gulf countries. The market of Saudi Arabia has many barriers to entry since it requires the huge investment in establishing infrastructure, forming efficient distribution system, building brand name and also a considerable capital base for supporting the new entry. However, it can be portrayed that WalMart enjoys these advantages globally owing to its ability to invest the required amount for successful entry. So, in order to enter the market of Saudi Arabia, WalMart has to outline the estimate of investments to be made. The estimation is totally based on local requirement and competition. For understanding requirements of local Arabs and examine competitors in the market, WalMart should undertake an efficient market survey. The market survey will highlight the demand for the local Arabs and kind of products that they prefer most, besides indicating to the purchasing power of customers. The competitor analysis is the most important part of a market survey. The competitors and their business aspects will be critically analyzed by WalMart so as to identify strategies that they follow. The strategies followed by competitors allow WalMart to comprehend the exact likings and lifestyle of Arabs. Interviews with local Arabs will reflect their tastes and preferences as well as help in building trust and confidence. WalMart aims at selling most essential goods, which fulfills the basic need of any individual. The company does not highlight any particular product group and sells a wide-ranging set of products, thereby serving a diversified customer base. It can be noticed that many companies based in the United States (US) have ignored cultural beliefs of the targeted foreign markets and as a result, had encountered huge challenges that in turn led to the collapse of these companies. Nonetheless, it is extremely necessary for WalMart to consider all preva iling religious beliefs and traditions while preparing for entry into the Saudi Arabian market. It is observed that Saudi Arabia imports the largest amount of goods from the US, which highlights the fact that American products do not contradict social beliefs and traditions of the Arabs.

Problem question in contract law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Problem question in contract law - Essay Example 14). The acceptance of an offer results in a valid contract. The offeree makes the acceptance in response to the offer made by the offeror. Acceptance must be unqualified, and unambiguous (Barry, 1992, p. 14). The offer made by the offeror to the offeree has to be accepted by the latter, if a binding contract is to ensue. The offeror has the choice of specifying the manner in which the offeree has communicate acceptance of the offer. This makes it incumbent upon the offeree to communicate acceptance without any deviation (Kelly, et al., 2011, p. 234). As such, in certain contracts, one of the parties promises to perform some action, if the other party does some specific act, even though the other party does not promise to perform that act. Such contracts are termed as unilateral contracts. As such, acceptance may be construed from conduct and there is no necessity for it to be communicated (Marson, 2010, p. 16). The readiness to accept offers or to enter into negotiations constitutes an invitation to treat. The main issues to be considered for solving the problem are: Whether there is a valid contract between Julia and O’Brien. Whether the telephonic acceptance by O’Brien concludes a contract between Parsons and O’Brien. ... This enraged Julia, who left the shop. An offer must be unambiguous and can be express or implied. The display of goods in a shop does not constitute an offer. It is merely, an invitation to treat. The offer comes into being when the customer selects some goods and expresses his willingness to purchase them (Barry, 1992, p. 14). Thus, it is the customer who makes the offer, in such instances. In Fisher v Bell, it was held that the display of items with a price tag in shop windows was an invitation to treat (Young, 2010, p. 13). In Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Company, the defendants were the producers of a medicinal product called the carbolic smoke ball. This company gave an advertisement in the local newspapers, wherein it promised a reward of ?100 to anyone who contacted influenza or any other disease resulting from catching a cold, after having used their product. It also prescribed the dosage of the carbolic ball to be used, in its advertisement. The company also declared that one ball would last a family for several months (O'Sullivan & Hilliard, 2010, p. 15). The plaintiff Mrs. Carlill bought a smoke ball duly believing the contents of the advertisement, and used the medicine as directed by the company. However, she was infected by influenza, despite using the smoke ball for the required period and in the prescribed manner (O'Sullivan & Hilliard, 2010, p. 16). The Court held that the newspaper advertisement, in this case constituted an offer. In addition, it was held in Grainger Son v Gough that the circulation of a catalogue by a seller of goods does not constitute an offer and that it was merely an invitation to treat. This reiterated in Fisher v Bell, wherein the display of goods in a shop window, was deemed an invitation to treat and not

Tata Group Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Tata Group - Research Paper Example The overseas company was established in London. It was known as Tata Limited. In order to achieve this accomplishment, Tata Group invested in a hotel in 1902 (Paul & Kapoor, 2008). Through the establishment of ‘The Indian Hotels Company’, Jamsetji Tata was able to build ‘Taj Mahal Palace Hotel’ which became functional in 1903. Within a few years of investment, the hotel business was able to accumulate profit that was used to expand operations outside India (Witzel, 2010). Tata also started investing in ironworks by establishing ‘Tata Iron and Steel Company’ and used the profits to expand to other countries. The company maximized on profits by minimizing on wages and proper utilization of resources. For them to be able to expand, it was crucial for the company to take such action. Tata Group did business with countries such as England, China, Britain and Japan. The host governments demanded the investments. This is because the business brought about major economic benefits for the host countries. For example, Tata Group was able to contribute to taxes in the host countries. These taxes became a source of revenue that was used to improve the economic state of the host countries (Paul & Kapoor, 2008). Moreover, Tata group was able to utilize labor provided by the host countries. The economic benefit that came out of this is that people in the host countries were able to secure employment opportunities hence improving their livelihoods. Host countries also demanded the investment due to the benefits that they were bound to receive through infrastructure. Tata Group was definitely going to improve the infrastructure in the areas that they would operate. Nonetheless, they would receive ready market for their exports through trading with India. Countries highly regard trading since it is a major source of foreign exchange. The investment also co ntributed to technological

Economics Issues Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Economics Issues - Coursework Example Consumers play a key role in perpetuating discrimination in the labor market through their choices and consumption patterns. If consumers prefer one commodity over another, they will lower demand in that labor market in which they do not prefer their goods.  Consumers play a key role in perpetuating discrimination in the labor market through their choices and consumption patterns. If consumers prefer one commodity over another, they will lower demand in that labor market in which they do not prefer their goods.  The law of diminishing marginal utility states that as consumption of a given commodity is increased by an individual while keeping the consumption of other products constant, there will be a decline in the marginal utility of the individual that is derived from the consumption of each and every additional unit of the product. The law of diminishing marginal utility does not contract the notion that individuals always want more of all goods because they are limited by the ir budget constraint hence they cannot acquire all that they want at any given instance.  Properties of indifference curves(a) NonintersectionIndifference curves cannot intersect each other because, at the point of tangency, the curve on the higher side will yield much more of the two commodities as compared to the lower curve hence they can never intersect.  (b) Convexity to the origin(c) The higher the indifference curve, the higher the level of satisfaction. The consumers will prefer to choose higher indifference curves since they aim at maximizing their utility.  (d) Negatively sloping. The indifference curves are negatively sloping because the consumer must give up the consumption of one commodity in order to consume more of the other commodity.  

Postmodernism and Media Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Postmodernism and Media - Research Paper Example It would be the harmonious sequencing of details to emerge as one. Postmodernism has influenced some if not all forms of the arts whether performed or written. Others may perceive that postmodernism, in the more modern and in some technological aspect, to be affecting the social media as it could be affecting or contravening the classical capitalism. In this sense, though there is a harmonious mixture of transformation, there are also events that may have affected other aspects of the economy, government or the media itself.2 A theory of postmodernism said to have pronounced the â€Å"end of the real.† With the aim of postmodernist to infuse transformations, it did not claim any exclusion therefore media is not excluded from these changes. A concern that can be brought about this is that the public would be given a very hard task of knowing what is real and what is not. Though this will bring out the instincts and curiosity of the audience, people often have a tendency to beli eve more what is seen rather than what is yet to be discovered through rigorous reading and investigation. There can be various reasons and objectives as to why and what transformations and complexities postmodernism introduce to various media forms.Before, the only thing which could be fictional is the story of a particular movie or series. With the availability of technology, currently it is also possible that the characters in these forms of media can a fictional or an animated one. Maybe during the first few years or decades of postmodernism, the audience were giving their full attention as to knowing what new ideas or innovations would be brought up. This could be the negative effect of technology not just in media but even with postmodernism. As time passes by, people have seen what technology can do to a movie or a series since none of the two are broadcasted or aired live. The film could have been edited, recorded and re-recorded a hundred times. There are instances that the editions and transformations made to the film makes it quite similar to other films earlier produced. This could affect the attention-span of the viewers.5 As Jameson further stated, â€Å"the analogy between media and market is in fact cemented by this mechanism: it is not because the media is like a market that the two things are comparable; rather it is because the â€Å"market† is as unlike its â€Å"concept† (or Platonic idea) as the media is unlike its own concept that the two things are comparable. The media offers free programs with which the consumer has no choice on the content and assortment whatsoever but the selection is then rebaptized â€Å"free choice.†6 Believing what is seen is more convenient for some rather than reading an endless text which could lead no nothingness and further cluelessness. Though the audiences are more intelligent in comparison to audiences from previous decades, there are still those who could not distinguish what is re al and what is not. For some, media will always be the same but not for Bignell as he classified media to be old and new. Elaborating on this idea, Bignell stated that â€Å"

Getting A Scholarship To Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Getting A Scholarship To Study - Essay Example The scholarship not only served as a financial assistance but was also a unique opportunity to display my academic prowess. There is no doubt that scholarships are more prestigious and that they play important role in enhancing one’s resume and at the same time help one to pay for his or her education. Scholarship has provided me with enormous financial benefits as it has helped me to study without incurring substantial costs or not getting into debts. This helped me to concentrate on my studies and in the future, it will help me to focus on my career without thinking about repaying loans. By removing financial barriers, the scholarship made my career and education goals easier to obtain. In addition to financial and educational benefits, the scholarship provided me with career benefit. Earning a prestigious scholarship makes me a more attractive job candidate. Most employers understand the competitive nature of the scholarship and as such, they recognize scholarship as an acc omplishment. It demonstrates to potential employers that I have exceptional abilities in the academic realm. Listing scholarship in my resume helps me to stand out when searching for a job and possibly help me to achieve the career that I want. The scholarship also came with personal benefit; it made a significant difference regarding how much resources and time that I had during college to spend to enhance my knowledge and experience through internships, volunteer opportunities, and service-learning.

Economics Issues Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Economics Issues - Coursework Example Consumers play a key role in perpetuating discrimination in the labor market through their choices and consumption patterns. If consumers prefer one commodity over another, they will lower demand in that labor market in which they do not prefer their goods.  Consumers play a key role in perpetuating discrimination in the labor market through their choices and consumption patterns. If consumers prefer one commodity over another, they will lower demand in that labor market in which they do not prefer their goods.  The law of diminishing marginal utility states that as consumption of a given commodity is increased by an individual while keeping the consumption of other products constant, there will be a decline in the marginal utility of the individual that is derived from the consumption of each and every additional unit of the product. The law of diminishing marginal utility does not contract the notion that individuals always want more of all goods because they are limited by the ir budget constraint hence they cannot acquire all that they want at any given instance.  Properties of indifference curves(a) NonintersectionIndifference curves cannot intersect each other because, at the point of tangency, the curve on the higher side will yield much more of the two commodities as compared to the lower curve hence they can never intersect.  (b) Convexity to the origin(c) The higher the indifference curve, the higher the level of satisfaction. The consumers will prefer to choose higher indifference curves since they aim at maximizing their utility.  (d) Negatively sloping. The indifference curves are negatively sloping because the consumer must give up the consumption of one commodity in order to consume more of the other commodity.  

Getting A Scholarship To Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Getting A Scholarship To Study - Essay Example The scholarship not only served as a financial assistance but was also a unique opportunity to display my academic prowess. There is no doubt that scholarships are more prestigious and that they play important role in enhancing one’s resume and at the same time help one to pay for his or her education. Scholarship has provided me with enormous financial benefits as it has helped me to study without incurring substantial costs or not getting into debts. This helped me to concentrate on my studies and in the future, it will help me to focus on my career without thinking about repaying loans. By removing financial barriers, the scholarship made my career and education goals easier to obtain. In addition to financial and educational benefits, the scholarship provided me with career benefit. Earning a prestigious scholarship makes me a more attractive job candidate. Most employers understand the competitive nature of the scholarship and as such, they recognize scholarship as an acc omplishment. It demonstrates to potential employers that I have exceptional abilities in the academic realm. Listing scholarship in my resume helps me to stand out when searching for a job and possibly help me to achieve the career that I want. The scholarship also came with personal benefit; it made a significant difference regarding how much resources and time that I had during college to spend to enhance my knowledge and experience through internships, volunteer opportunities, and service-learning.

Liberalism Notes Essay Example for Free

Liberalism Notes Essay * Mainstream western philosophy. Other philosophies define themselves in relation to liberalism. * Evolution over time, though constant stress on individual freedom. Intellectual antecedents are 16th century religious reformations, 17th century scientific revolution and 18th century Enlightenment. !8th/19th century industrialisation created new class interests with commitment to reform programme so term liberalism dates from early 19th century. * Liberalism a reaction to 19th century absolutist regimes hence inextricably bound up with national self-determination. Movements for national freedom/unity associated with demands for civil/political rights and for constitutional checks on government. Contrast with Britain, where parliamentary sovereignty established in 17th century hence liberal domestic programme focused on other objectives such as parliamentary reform, religious toleration and free trade. * 19th century continental liberalism primarily a political creed and even in Britain the centrality of free markets to liberalism has been exaggerated. Victorian liberalism stood for political reform at home and support for constitutional/national movements abroad. Inspired more by religion (radical nonconformism) than by economics. Indeed from 19th century British liberalism repudiated laisser-faire and accepted need for state intervention (New Liberalism) especially in social welfare. * Decline of Liberal Party in 20th century, but ascendancy of liberal ideas. Dominant orthodoxy until late 1970s was derived from New Liberalism Keynes and Beveridge marked culmination of New Liberal thinking. Challenge to consensus came principally from an older free market version of liberalism i.e. neo-liberalism. Battle of ideas post 1945 less between left and right than between old and new liberalism. * Today liberal has different meanings in different places UK Liberals/Liberal Democrats long seen as centre/left of centre; in EU liberalism normally associated with the right; in USA a term of abuse for radical-progressive (crypto-socialist) ideas; label also associated with free market advocates (Hayek, Friedman, New Right). And almost all mainstream ideologies can be regarded as variants of liberalism. * Liberal values/ideas of vital historical importance central to development of British political tradition UNDERLYING ASSUMPTIONS AND VALUES OF LIBERALISM * Hall (1986) describes liberals as open-minded, tolerant, rational, freedom-loving people, sceptical of the claims of tradition and established authority, but strongly committed to the values of liberty, competition and individual freedom. 19th century liberalism stood for individualism in politics, civil and political rights, parliamentary government, moderate reform, limited state intervention, and a private enterprise economy. Widespread agreement over key liberal ideas/values though not over their later development and interpretation. * Key assumption is individualism. Individuals (rather than nations/races/classes) are the starting point. Society an aggregate of individuals; social behaviour explained in terms of some basic assumptions about human psychology. Some liberal thinkers saw society as an artificial creation prior state of nature where neither society nor government existed. Implication that society and government were purposefully created by individuals in pursuit of their own self-interest. So no social interests beyond the interests of individuals who make up society. * Individuals pursue their own self-interest rationally. No-one else (especially rulers) can determine the individuals own interest. Optimistic assumption that the general pursuit of rational self-interest will produce not only individual satisfaction but also social progress and the happiness of the greatest number. * Freedom the key value individuals must be free to pursue their own self-interest (Mill). Originally this had a negative interpretation i.e. importance of freedom from external constraint. In early history of liberalism this entailed firm limits on power of government to interfere with individual liberty. An important application was principle of toleration applied especially to religious belief championed by Locke (1689) Mill (1859) went on to demand full freedom of thought and expression. Later some liberals stressed freedom to enjoy certain benefits (positive liberty) thus entailing extensive state intervention to enlarge freedom (Green (1881) and Hobhouse (1911) and Berlin (1975)). Conflict between positive and negative views of freedom (and divergent implications) a major theme in the development of liberalism in 20th century. * Influence of egalitarian assumptions. So stress on equality before the law, and equal civil and political rights (though little agreement on what these should be in practice). Some liberals thus justify state provision of education et al to create greater equality of opportunity. But this commitment generally accompanied by acceptance of considerable inequality of income and wealth so in practice equality sacrificed to liberty? * Freedom entails the freedom to be unequal? But liberals deny that individual liberty is inconsistent with social justice. Self-seeking individualism, yes but equation of might and right, no. Squaring of circle attempt to make justice consistent with pursuit of rational self-interest (Rawls, 1971). Implies optimistic view of human nature and thus scope for reconciling individual and collective goals. Hence liberalism differs here from traditional conservatism (more pessimistic about human nature) and socialism (deny reconciliation can be readily achieved) SUMMARY OF THE HISTORICAL WHIG-LIBERAL TRADITION * 17th century Puritanism and Parliamentarism * Late 17th/18th century The Whig Tradition: Glorious Revolution (Locke), constitutional monarchy, government by consent, division of powers, religious toleration (Charles James Fox), oligarchy, mercantilism. * Late 18th/early 19th century Radicalism: revolution (Paine), rationalism, rights of man. * Classical liberalism (Smith) Individualism (Malthus), free markets (Ricardo), utilitarianism (Bentham), representative democracy ( James Mill). * Mid 19th/later 19th century Victorian Liberalism: Manchester liberalism (Cobden), nonconformism (Bright), free trade (Gladstone), nationalism (Mill), municipal gospel (Joseph Chamberlain). * Late 19th century/early 20th century New Liberalism (T.H.Green): social reform (Hobhouse), state intervention (Hobson), liberal imperialism (Edward Grey), national efficiency (Asquith), constitutional reform (Lloyd George). * 1920s to 1970s Decline of Liberal Party but progressive liberal consensus (Keynes, Beveridge). * Late 20th century/early 21st century Liberal revival? (Steel): European Union (Ashdown), devolution (Kennedy). THE WHIG TRADITION * Whig party in 17th century opposed royal absolutism and championed religious dissent; support for rights of parliament and for limits on royal power. Influence of Locke (1632-1704) belief in natural rights to life, liberty and property; government should rest on consent of governed, whose rebellion was justified if their rights were infringed. Need for constitutional limits on government, and division between legislative and executive powers ideas enshrined (imperfectly) in British Constitution post 1688 Glorious Revolution, and later helped to inspire French and American Revolutions. * Contradictions in Whiggism. Defence of material interests aristocrats and merchant/banking allies sought to preserve own power, property, privileges from threat of crown. No concern for massive 18th century wealth/income inequalities. And no wish to spread power beyond the propertied, so constitution they developed/defended was oligarchic/conservative. Fortunes made out of war, slave trade, India. Enclosure of land at expense of rural poor; ruthless enforcement of game laws. * Radical interpretation of Whiggism also no taxation without representation (slogan of parl. opposition to the Stuarts) also became cry of American colonies. 1776 Declaration of Independence based on Whig principles; French revolution welcomed by most Whigs Whig leader Charles James Fox defended its principles/championed civil liberties in England (until death in 1806). * Out of office, 1783-1830, so able to proclaim continued attachment to peace, retrenchment and reform unsuccessful parl. Reform bills, 1797 and 1810. Some credit claimed for abolition of slave trade, while traditional Whig demand for religious toleration reaffirmed in support for Catholic emancipation. * Defection of Old Whigs and accommodation within Foxite remnant of party of new radical generation, committed to reform, helped to preserve/reestablish a politically progressive Whig tradition that ultimately merged into liberalism. 1832 Reform Act the culmination of the Whig tradition yet underlines its essentially conservative nature very modest franchise extension (some of the propertied middle classes). Yet new urban centres gained at the expense of the shires; manufacturing/commerce at the expense of land. Whig aristocrats ultimately lost influence to urban-based business and professional middle classes (the muscle behind Victorian liberalism), though Whigs remained an important, if diminishing, element within the Liberal coalition until the late 19th century. (An antidote to those who view liberalism almost exclusively in terms of free markets neglects the Whig foundations). * The Whig-Liberal tradition is essentially a political tradition, concerned with constitutional issues/civil liberties/parl. sovereignty/ government by consent/freedom of conscience and religious observance/no taxation without representation. Whiggism served economic interests but never really an economic doctrine not about free trade/markets. Foreign trade policy in 17th/18th centuries mercantilist aimed to secure (through colonisation, Navigation Acts and war) the largest possible British share of world trade. RADICALS * Radical reformers at different times, interwoven with or opposed to Whig tradition influence on both liberalism and socialism. Radicalism a broad term, with different connotations for different periods, yet huge influence on British liberalism and 19th century Liberal party. * Paine (1737-1809) never absorbed into the Whig (later Liberal) establishment argued that once sovereignty had been transferred from the monarch to the people, there was no logical case for restricting the franchise his ideas the logical outcome of Whig slogans. Paine a liberal? (uncompromising individualism, sympathies with manfacturers, hostility to government). Or a socialist? (Blueprint for the Welfare State, support for graduated income tax, inspiration for Chartists). More impact in USA/France than in Britain seen as dangerous due to uncompromising republicanism, total opposition to hereditary principle, rejection of Christianity. * Philosopher radicals (or utilitarians) such as Bentham were in touch with progressive Whigs; Whitbread and Brougham constituted the progressive wing of the parl. party. Cobbetts radical populism harked back to pre-industrial age; Bright (Quaker manufacturer) belonged to new generation of post 1832 MPs himself displaced by new breed of radicals who took over the Liberal party in latter part of 19th century. * Radical pressure reinforced Whig commitment to parliamentary reform in 1832, and later. Association with religious dissent in 2nd half of 19th century imbued it with strong moral character fuelled demands for non-denominational state education and C of E disestablishment. Also strongly associated with the municipal gospel in local government. Fusion of Whigs and radicals with former Peelites created Liberal Party, 1859. Whigs continued to dominate Liberal Cabinets, but radicals dominated increasingly important grass roots level, especially after 1859 formation of the National Liberal Federation. * Yet it was a relatively restrained, religiously inspired, and peculiarly British strand of radicalism which eventually prevailed rather than the fiercely rationalist, republican radicalism of Paine. CLASSICAL ECONOMICS AND UTILITARIANISM * Intellectual (rather than moral) influence on Victorian liberalism of classical economists and utilitarians. Smith (1732-90), Malthus (1766-1834) and Ricardo (1772-1823) established importance of markets in the allocation/distribution of resources. And Benthams (1748-1832) utility principle was applied to a wide range of institutions/practices fiercely rationalist analysis (What use is it?). The greatest happiness of the greatest number was the only right and proper end of government. * Both stemmed from the 18th century Enlightenment; both shared the individualist/rationalist assumptions underpinning liberalism; each tended to share the implications of the others approach. Mill had a foot in both camps. * But modern neo-liberals argue it is only Smith and Hume (18th century Scottish Enlightenment) who represent the true spirit of liberalism. Bentham et al are blamed for ideas which provided a warrant for much later illiberal interventionist policy (Gray, 1986). The greatest happiness principle is seen as a breach of free market economics, since the principle of representative democracy (advocated by Mill who converted Bentham) might involve electoral pressures for interference with free market forces; moreover, neo-liberals are opposed to Benthams advocacy of bureaucracy, and thus the appointment of qualified, salaried public officials. The contradictory implications of Benthamite thinking are seen in the utilitarian-influenced Poor Law Amendment Act (1834) the able-bodied poor must enter a workhouse where their condition would be less eligible than that of the lowest independent labourer (free market incentives); at the same time theAct required a comprehensive network of administrative areas and officials, and a large degree of central control and inspection (bureaucracy). * Hence modern neo-liberals are critical of Benthams constructivist rationalism (Hayek, 1975); Gray (1986) claims that it had an inherent tendency to spawn policies of interventionist social engineering. Their refusal to recognise Bentham as a liberal involves an artificial conception of liberalism which has little in common with the Whig/Liberal tradition. * The major classical economists contributed significantly to Victorian liberalism, but their ideas were extensively vulgarised. Even Smith allowed for significant exceptions to his invisible hand. Popularisers such as Harriet Martineau, Edward Baines and Samuel Smiles reduced the principles of classical economics to laissez-faire (for governments) and self-help (for individuals). Public policy, moreover, was never consistently governed by laissez-faire look at the various Factory Acts, Public Health Acts and Acts to regulate the railways and banks passed in the early Victorian period. VICTORIAN LIBERALISM * Although the term liberal was applied from the early 19th century, the Liberal Party emerged only in the 1850s from a party realignment of Whigs, radicals and Peelite Conservatives. Gladstone (1809-98), originally a Con. follower of Peel, the embodiment of Victorian liberalism. Domination of Liberal party, and shaped in his own image; he became more radical and populist with age. Also inspired by Christian moral fervour struck chord among nonconformists. So Gladstonian liberalism a moral crusade (Vincent, 1966). * Several strands. Parliamentary reform derived from Whig tradition; advocacy of Bright, then Gladstone turned it into a populist cause. Proposals for modest franchise extension developed into radical demands for full manhood suffrage. Nonconformist strand while the 1860s parliamentary party was still overwhelmingly Anglican, the Liberals were becoming the party of the nonconformist conscience (Vincent, 1966).Nonconformist pressures spawned the National Education League (to campaign for a national, free and secular system of education), which provided the model for the National Liberal Federation (1877) which established a national organisation for he Liberal party, and tipped it decisively towards radical nonconformism. By the 1880s the PLP (and the party in the country) was predominantly nonconformist. * Support for liberal and nationalist movements in Europe, especially Italian unification, helped create Palmerstons 1859 government and kept it intact; Gladstone campaigned against the Bulgarian atrocities, bringing him out of premature retirement and into close collaboration with the nonconformists. The religious fervour behind his mission to pacify Ireland both split the party and strengthened the moral element in liberalism. * Manchester liberalism also quite influential in the party after 1859. Free trade was established as a liberal principle. Gladstone, as Chancellor, built on earlier work of Cobden and Bright (Anti Corn Law League, 1846 repeal of Corn Laws reflected transfer of power from landed to manufacturing interests) by abolishing a range of duties; Cobden negotiated Anglo-French trade treaty of 1860. But free trade did not entail laissez-faire in domestic policy Cobdens opposition to Factory Acts increasingly out of tune with the times. * Increased state intervention entailed by liberal practice major reforms in education, the army, the law and civil service, 1868-74. Third Reform Act, 1884 triumph of radical demands over Whig caution. Chamberlains Unauthorised Programme (1885) and the Newcastle Programme (1891) marked decisive shift towards radicalism. * Pace of change too fast for some Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) combined laissez-faire economics with evolutionary survival of the fittest; opposition to most forms of state intervention being introduced by Liberals at national and local level; but out of step. By contrast, Mill (1806-73) key transitional figure in evolution of liberalism. The sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of any of their number is self-protection (1859) effectively a plea for minimal state intervention (Mill denounced censorship and argued for full liberty of thought and expression). Yet his commitment to individuality (and advocacy of democracy) caused him to fear the tyranny of the majority and the despotism of custom, seen as a greater threat to individuality than deliberate actions by governments. So a watershed thinker in the development of liberalism from individualism to collectivism (Gray, 1986). LIBERALISM, CAPITALISM AND DEMOCRACY * Liberalism closely associated with rise of industrial capitalism preeminently the creed of the owners of industrial/financial capital. Its political objectives focused on the enfranchisement of the new middle classes and the transfer of political power to the major manufacturing urban centres. No coincidence that Liberal party finally emerged in the 1850s when Britains industrial and commercial dominance was unchallenged, and the working classes were ununionised and unenfranchised. Even further back, protestant dissent (and especially puritanism) embodied ideas favourable to the spirit of capitalist accumulation. * But British liberalism cannot be simply derived from capitalism. The leading Whig MPs, who were still prominent in 19th century Liberal governments, were large landowners; many rank and file Liberals were not manufacturers but small shopkeepers and tradesmen; many of the working class were attached to the Liberal cause (even before the vote). In practice liberalism a coalition of class interests. Many of its causes temperance, religious disestablishment, home rule were scarcely connected with the interests of capitalism. Leading liberal thinkers Mill, Hobhouse, Keynes, Beveridge gave capitalism only qualified support. * Establishment of capitalist economy accompanied by the gradual establishment of a liberal democratic system no coincidence. Indeed, Marxist view is that rep. democracy offers best shell for capitalism so hardly surprising that party of the bourgeoisie was at forefront of parliamentary reform movement, though stopping short of support for full rep. democracy. Gray (1986, and a neo-liberal) accounts for this by arguing that unlimited democracy cannot be liberal government since it respects no domain of independence or liberty as being immune to invasion by governmental authority. * But representative democracy in early 19th century was largely untried, so not surprising liberals were apprehensive about what was a radical minority cause. Yet Paine advocated full manhood suffrage, and Mill argued for extension to women of full political rights. Once the logic of reform was accepted and liberals became committed to the theory and practice of rep. democracy their conversion was wholehearted, and seen by many (such as Chamberlain) as a justification for abandoning earlier limitations to government intervention. Herbert Samuel (1902) argued a reformed state could be entrusted with social reform Now democracy has been substituted for aristocracy as the root principle of the constitution .the State today is held worthy to be the instrument of the community in many affairs for which the State of yesterday was clearly incompetent.. Acceptance of democracy a critical step towards New Liberalism. Inexorable logic by which liberals progressed from parliamentary reform to representative democracy, to state intervention and the apparent abandonment of some of the principles associated with earlier liberalism. THE NEW LIBERALISM * Flourished in late 19th/early 20th centuries involved state economic/social reform which repudiated laissez-faire liberalism. Controversial development natural extension and refinement of the old principles OR culmination of anti-liberal elements present in the liberal tradition from the 1840s in the work of Mill. (Socialist critics dismiss NL as a forlorn attempt to revive an outmoded ideology Arblaster, 1984). * Origins of NL? Influence of Hegelian idealism? Party project to win working class support and head off rising Labour challenge? Need to modernise British economy/society and thus to compete more effectively? Or simply a rationalisation of the substantial growth in government intervention that had already occurred? * Key NL thinkers were Green, Hobson and Hobhouse. Green (1836-82) an Oxford philosopher and Hegelian; Hobson an economist who believed under-consumption to be the cause of unemployment; Hobhouse (1864-1929) a philosopher/sociologist. Common aim to redefine old liberal values in line with new political practice. So freedom, according to Green, meant a positive power or capacity and must be enjoyed by all. Hobson referred to the provision of equal opportunities for self-development so state intervention might be needed to remove obstacles. (But each enlargement of the authority and functions of the State must justify itself as an enlargement of personal liberty, interfering with individuals only in order to set free new and larger opportunities). Hobhouse justified interference with the market to secure the right to work and the right to a living wage, given the powerlessness of individual workers to secure such rights. * Liberal politicians were more cautious than the NL ideologues, though were increasingly interventionist, both at national and at local level. Locally, enthusiasm for civic improvements amounted to a municipal gospel city government seen as a test-bed for policies which could be applied nationally. Chamberlain (1836-1914) a radical Liberal mayor of Birmingham before moving to national politics (later split with Gladstone and allied with the Conservatives) campaign for the Unauthorised Programme (1895) based on LG experience hospitals, schools, museums, libraries, galleries, baths, parks, etc. Explicit rejection of laissez-faire, which was equivalent to acceptance of selfish wealth alongside poverty; accepted charge that proposed reforms were in practice socialism. Radical, reforming approach of 1895 UA echoed in 1891 Newcastle programme. At national level, little opportunity to implement the NL programme before the Liberal landslide victory of 1906. * 1906-14 Liberal Government key figures were Asquith and Lloyd George. Welfare reforms included provision of school meals and OAPs, and LGs introduction of national health and unemployment insurance (1911). LGs 1909 budget involved some modest income/wealth redistribution through the land tax and progressive income tax. And Churchills labour exchanges showed willingness to intervene in the labour market. * Key stimulus was rising challenge of labour; historians disagree over electoral appeal of state welfare advocated by leaders of organised working class, but not necessarily popular with working class voters, and frightened many middle class voters. Rosebery (briefly PM post Gladstone) thought Newcastle programme cost the party votes, though his Liberal Imperialism appealed to a chauvinistic working class, while his more modest economic/social reform programme promoted National Efficiency and appealed to progressive businessmen set on competing successfully with the rising economies of Germany, USA and Japan. DECLINE OF THE LIBERAL PARTY AND TRIUMPH OF LIBERALISM? * NL failed to prevent decline of Liberal party. WW1 undermined Liberal internationalism. Pressures towards collectivism/coercion associated with modern warfare created huge strains for Liberal individualism especially on symbolic issue of conscription. And after WW1 many Liberal causes (religious nonconformism, temperance, free trade) seemed less relevant. * Yet the disintegration of the Liberal party signifies the triumph of liberalism .. if liberalism is now partly invisible, this is because so many of its assumptions and ideals have infiltrated political practice and current awareness. (Eccleshall, 1986). Culmination of liberal thought seen in Beveridges social welfare proposals and in Keynesian economic theory provided basis of the post WW2 ideological consensus. 1942 Beveridge Report based on insurance principle, and was in keeping with spirit of LGs 1911 insurance scheme though much more comprehensive. Keynes economic theory provided for macro government intervention but allowed markets to operate freely at the micro level. Both B and K favoured private ownership of the means of production. It was precisely this kind of state intervention to promote employment and welfare provision which was favoured by earlier NLs like Green and Hobhouse. * Other liberal ideas long absorbed into British culture. 1960s changes in the law on divorce, homosexuality and abortion; some relaxation of censorship all compatible with Mills 1859 proclamation of principles of individual liberty. Later laws on equal pay, equal opportunities, and race and sex discrimination in 1970s fully consistent with liberal ideology. Thus a progressive liberal orthodoxy was established, with support from all parties. * Apparent triumph of economic/social ideas of NL complicated by revival (from 1970s onwards) of the older free market liberalism associated with classical economics. Hence modern use of term liberal requires a qualifying prefix. Hence progressive (or social) liberals advocate penal reform, civil liberties, protection of rights of minorities, freedom of expression, and open government unashamed economic interventionists. Neo-liberals (Hayek, Friedman) favour free market ideas on the right of the political spectrum, with key influence on the New Right and on Thatcherite conservatism. THE IDEAS OF MODERN LIBERALS AND LIBERAL DEMOCRATS * Modest revival in Liberal party fortunes began in 1960s; accelerated in mid 1970s; given impetus by alliance with SDP in 1983 and 1987; merger to form LDs. Now involved in coalition in Scotland and Wales, have large role in English LG, and 52 MPs after 2001 General Election. Accompanied by revival in associated political ideas. * Policies of Liberals/LDs involve continuation of NL tradition welfare capitalism, with strong stress upon individual rights. Distinctive Liberal policies included early advocacy of UK membership of EU, devolution, incomes policies, partnership in industry, electoral and other constitutional reform, and a focus on the community (linked with Liberal successes in LG). * Postwar Liberal party did little to extend/develop liberalism no startling new ideas or major thinkers. Neither electoral successes nor failures owed much to liberal ideology. Key decisions for leadership have been tactical, not ideological whether to accept Heaths coalition offer in 1974, whether to support the Labour government after 1977, how to handle the SDP breakaway from Labour in 1981, and how soon to promote a merger with the SDP. In fact, more intellectual ferment among the SDP, and their post -merger remnants. Dividing line between NL and Fabian socialism has always been thin? Hobhouse talked of liberal socialism in 1911; Hobson joined Labour after WW1. Thinner still following revisionist tendencies on the Labour Right in the 1950s, and the SDP breakaway in 1981. Hence the Liberal/SDP Alliance (and later merger) can be seen as the practical expression of an ideological convergence that was already well under way (Behrens, 1989). But ultimately it was the Liberals that swallowed the SDP, and not the other way round so the modern LDs are the clear lineal descendants of the old Liberal party. * Paradoxically, as fortunes of the Liberals/LDs have risen, LD ideas have become less distinctive. For most of post WW2 period Liberals adopted an intermediate position between Con and Lab. Briefly, in early 1980s, Liberals (and allies) seemed to offer a distinctive middle way between Thatcherism and left wing socialism. Since then Lab has reoccupied the centre ground previously vacated, leaving the LDs with little ideological space and few distinctive ideas or policies on the management of the economy, constitutional reform, Europe, defence and foreign policy the differences between the LDs and Lab are ARGUABLY more of degree than kind. * Under Ashdowns leadership, coalition with Labour seemed logical, even likely, given Blairs keenness to heal the divisions on the centre-left which had left the Cons dominant for most of the 20th century. Coalitions in LG and in the devolved bodies provide continuing impetus but sheer scale of Labs victories in 1997 and 2001 (and resistance within both parties) have weakened the project. LDs have pursued a more independent and critical line under Kennedy, without yet returning to earlier policy of equidistance between Lab and Con. * Attempts made to articulate a distinctive LD philosophy in these unpromising political circumstances by Wallace (1997), Russell (1999) and Ballard (2000). Yet terminology employed cooperation, working with others, partnership politics, community shared by New Labour and progressive Conservatives. Higher profile of LDs has drawn attention to considerable diversity of views in the party free market liberals, social liberals, conservatives with a social conscience and dissatisfied ex-Labour voters, greens, anarchists . (Ballard, 2000). Shows tolerance and inclusiveness? But not ideological coherence. The real problem is that there is now little distinctive ideological ground for the LDs to occupy, but this underlines the widespread acceptance of liberal ideas across mainstream British political parties.

Delineation Of Pipeline Coating Defects Company Engineering Essay

Delineation Of Pipeline Coating Defects Company Engineering Essay The business sector of corrosion monitoring and control solutions we provide expertise in consultation, evaluation, design and installation of cathodic protection systems. With established field assessment techniques and specialized equipment such as CIPS/DCVG survey equipment. Engineers collect record and analyze field data efficiently so that clients are able to run safe and highly optimized systems. Corrosion solutions are provided in a cost effective and with highly professionalism to enable clients to enhance their facilities integrity management systems. Introduction: The external inspections using DCVG-direct current voltage gradient technique was performed on this pipeline on March 10th 2011 to March 24th 2011.Cathodic protection and coating are complementary to each other and when applied together, result in reliable corrosion mitigation. Cathodic design presupposes certain coating breakdown criterion for the given type of coating and given environment. If coating break down exceeds beyond the maximum percentage limit presupposed by the CP system design, cathodic protection may become ineffective. To ensure the effective cathodic protection and effective corrosion control, it is desired to access the condition of the coating of the underground pipeline. Exposing the pipeline by excavation all along the length, for this purpose is impractical. Various methods have been evolved for the assessment of coating condition without excavation. One of the methods is Direct current voltage gradient survey. Safety: The site activities were performed as per the applicable safety procedures. Work permit was obtained prior to commencing of site activities. The HSE requirements were explained by PCML engineer to the site team. All personnel safety gears such as safety boots, coverall. Hard hat, googles etc were used during the site work. Codes and standards: The measured potentials and performance of the cathodic protection system, equipment and materials shall comply with the requirements PTS and NACE standards code and other authority having jurisdiction over the system. NACE RP-O502-2002 Pipeline external corrosion Direct Assessment Methodology. NACE RP-0169-96 control of External corrosion of underground or submerged metallic Piping systems. NACE RP-05-75 Design, installation, operation and maintenance of impressed current Deep ground bed. The scope of work performed in this project is in accordance to industry standards has been maintained to ensure international codes of practice in corrosion control. The criteria used for protective potentials of buried steel are indicated in NACE international national association of corrosion engineerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s standards. Pipeline details: The pipeline has the following physical characteristics and these details shall be applied to design the cp system. GSPC on shore gas pipeline Length : 67km Coating : three layer polyethylene Service : gas Source station : poc (chain age 10 km) Destination station : metering station (chain age 67 km) Introduction to DCVG coating survey equipment: The direct current voltage gradient (DCVG) pipeline coating survey test equipment is version 9, and is the most technologically advanced version of the equipment that can be traced directly back to the original invention of the technique in Australia by john mulvany. With the equipment described in this document, through experience in its use and interpretation, it is possible to gather with a reasonable degree of confidence the following information about the pipeline being inspected. Coating fault epicenter location to within a 15cm circle, which means that excavation costs can be reduced. The approximate severity of the coating fault can be established so that coating faults can be prioritized for repair. The approximate corrosion behavior of individual coating faults can be established to ease identification of those coating faults that do not have sufficient cathodic protection. DCVG technique does not however detect metal loss but identifies sites where metal loss is possible. Identification of where coating faults gets its cathodic protection from, cp that the vulnerability of coating fault to being unprotected if a CP source becomes inoperable can be established. Identification of coating faults that are discharging or picking up DC Traction interference so that more effective mitigation technique can be implemented. Establish the effectiveness of insulating flanges. Identification of interfering structures that robs CP from the pipeline. Identification of defective test probes at which pipe to soil potentials are routinely monitored. Rapidly establish sections of pipeline that have a larger number of coating faults by studying the rate of decay of the DC voltage gradient signal on the pipeline. The data gathered by DCVG technique is not absolute but relative and is influenced by a series of parameters such as soil resistivity, depth of burial etc whose effects must be taken into account to improve the accuracy of any data. Typical applications of DC voltage Gradient Technology: Shown below are some typical applications of DC voltage gradient technology to evaluate the protective coatings and cathodic protection on buried pipelines. It has to be remembered that the protective coating on a buried pipeline is premier corrosion protection mechanism but all coatings have coating faults in them. To control corrosion of steel exposed at coating faults, cathodic protection is used. Cathodic protection is supportive technique. The relationship between cathodic protection and protective coatings is important and since DCVG studies this relationship and provides valuable information to control corrosion. Typical Applications are: Evaluate pipeline coatings to define rehabilitation requirements. Define weakness in the cathodic protection system. Validate that the pipeline has been constructed with minimum coating faults. Investigate interference effects. Establish effectiveness of insulating flanges and other methods of pipeline isolation. Provides data for operating license validation. Surveying complex pipeline networks not possible by other methods. Surveying under concrete and asphalt in city streets. Capable of surveying under over head power lines. Electrical continuity checking of mechanically jointed pipelines. Principle of the DCVG Technique: When DC is applied to a pipeline in the same way as cathodic protection (CP) the current flow through the soil to steel exposed at coating faults generates a voltage gradient in the resistive soil. The larger the current flowing the greater the soil resistivity and the closer to the coating fault location all give rise to larger voltage gradient. In general larger the defect, bigger the current flow and hence the voltage gradient, which is used to size coating faults so they can be prioritized for repair. In the DC voltage gradient technique the DC signal impressed on to the pipeline is pulsed at a frequency of 1.25 hertz. The DC signal can be impressed on top of the existing CP system of the pipeline or the CP system itself can be utilized by inserting a special switch or interrupter into one of the output cables from the nearest transformer rectifier. Only one transformer rectifier nearest to the survey area needs to be interrupted at any one time, thus the limitations of the other over line surveys where all DC influences have to be switched at precisely the same time does not apply for coating fault location. For more precise and intensive studies it is advisable to interrupt synchronously a number of rectifiers that are affecting the area being surveyed. For fault location the pulsing DC signal can even be imposed at a test post using batteries or a portable DC generator and temporary ground bed. Unique feature of DC voltage gradient technique is that the pulsed signal is irregular in shape i.e. switched ON for 0.45 sec of a cycle and OFF for 0.8 sec of a cycle. The irregular pulse allows the direction of current flow to be determined and compared to all other DC influences at an individual coating fault, enabling the degree of protection against corrosion at individual faults to be determined at the time of survey. To monitor the voltage gradient in the soil the technique utilizes measuring on a sensitive and especially constructed milli voltmeter, the difference in voltage between two copper/copper sulphate half cells placed in the soil at ground level. When spaced one meter a part in a voltage gradient one half cell will adopt a more positive potential than the other which enables the direction of current flow which caused the voltage gradient to be established. In surveying a pipeline the operator walks over the pipeline route testing for pulsating voltage gradient at regular intervals. As coating fault is approached the surveyor will observe the milli voltmeter needle begin to respond to the pulse, pointing in the direction of current flow which should always be towards the coating fault on the pipeline. When the coating fault is passed the needle direction completely reverses and slowly decreases in amplitude as the surveyor moves away from the defect. By retracing to the coating fault a position of the electrodes can be found where the needle shows no deflection in either direction (a null). The coating fault is then sited midway between the two electrodes this procedure is then repeated at right angles to the first set of observations, and where the two midway positions cross is the location of the voltage gradient epicenter. The coating fault epicenter location is then pegged. In order to determine various characteristics about a defect, such as severity shape, corrosion behavior etc. Various electrical measurements around the epicenter and from epicenter to remote earth are made for detailed interpretation. Survey Switch (Interrupter): The survey switch utilizes a solid state device to switch the applied DC at one of two speeds determined by the position of the STD/SLOW switch. The STD/SLOW switch has two positions which represent: STANDARD (STD) setting 0.45seconds ON followed by 0.9 seconds OFF SLOW setting 0.9 seconds ON followed by 1.8 seconds OFF The STANDARD setting of the switch is used for normal surveying to find coating faults. This speed of switching matches the typical response time of a survey operative. The SLOW switch position is used in conjunction with a digital voltmeter for pipe to soil potential measurements or current measurements via an inline calibrated shunt. The interrupter is connected in series into either the negative or positive cables from the DC source being interrupted. The negative cable is preferred. This is setup so that the cable coming from the transformer/rectifier is connected to the BLACK terminal on the interrupter and the cable from the pipe is connected to the RED terminal on the interrupter. Danger : under no circumstances should the terminals of the interrupter be directly connected across the terminals of the DC power source/ transformer rectifier as this will short out the power source and do serious damage to the interrupter and the DC power source. Also do not under any circumstance connect the DC interrupter terminals to an AC source. Survey meter: Survey Meter: The dominant visible feature of the survey meter is the analogue meter movement. The meter has a center zero needle position. This means that with voltage across the meter input, the needle rests at mid scale irrespective of the range switch position. The survey meter has the following voltage ranges 10mv, 25mv, 50mv, 100mv, 250mv, 1v, 2.5v, 4v. the voltage range of the meter can be selected using the voltage range switch sited on right hand side of the meter front panel. The range switches correspond to various ranges or multiples of the ranges on the analogue meter scale. The 10mv on the voltage range corresponds to the zero to ten milli-volts full scale deflection on the analogue meter (plus or minus 5mv about the center rest position of the meter needle). The 25mv on the voltage range corresponds to the zero to ten milli-volts full scale deflection on the analogue meter (plus or minus 12.5mv about the center rest position of the meter needle). The 50mv on the voltage range corresponds to the zero to ten milli-volts full scale deflection on the analogue meter (plus or minus 25mv about the center rest position of the meter needle). When not in use the range switch should be turned to the 4-volt range to minimize any chance of meter damage. Probes and Handles: The standard probes used with the DC voltage gradient equipment are especially adapted approximately one meter long copper/copper sulphate reference electrodes. The probes are lightweight, high strength tubes fixed at one end to an insulated stainless steel stud that provides both electrical and mechanical connection to the probe handle. The other end of the probe electrode contains a conductive wooden plug to make electrochemical contact between the soil and the copper sulphate solution/copper electrode. The wooden plug is a push fit into its plastic holder with PTTE tape used a washer. The plastic holder screws onto the probe using a flat rubber washer as the seal. Only one probe handle is switched on and used at any one time during the survey. The other is used as a spare. Plain handles that have no bias are available since only one bias handle is used at any one time for surveying. The probe handle has a built in bias that is controlled via an ON/OFF/Range switch and a Bias adjustment potentiometer. Preparing Equipment For Survey: Battery charging: Generally the DCVG meter and the interrupter will require charging more frequently than the handles. Each equipment will require separate continues charging for two days if the batteries are entirely flat. When operating several sets in order to ensure all components parts of the equipment sets are adequately maintained it is advisable to number each component and set up a charging register to keep a tally of what equipment has been charged when and for how long. Probes: A wooden probe tip should first be wrapped around its cylindrical section with white PTFE tape applying sufficient to ensure the wooden tip is a firm push fit into the probe tip holder. All the three holders should and tips should be soaked in portable water overnight. Water uptake causes the wood to expand and give a liquid tight seal. The copper/copper sulphate probes are filled with copper sulphate solution. The probe is filled almost full of copper sulphate solution through the probe tip holder end. The presoaked tip and holder plus washer are screwed onto the probe to make a liquid tight seal, the probe is inverted to correct position and the handle is screwed. Surveying Setting up DCVG signal: The most important parameter in ensuring an accurate survey and in determining the survey speed is the amplitude of DCVG pulsed signal. It is worth to spend time during setting up the DCVG signal is atleast 150mv and no larger than 1500mv. As the signal amplitude or strength vary along a pipeline, the signal strength at start(drain point) should be 1500mv and that at the other should be at least 150mv. A rapid decay of signal as described as above measured at two locations say would be an indication of poor coating on the pipeline. The presence of many coating faults or some large drain on the CO system can be expected. Whereas good coating would show very little attenuation of signal amplitude. The signal strength or amplitude is the difference between ON and OFF potentials measured on the pipe to remote earth, whilst the interrupter is switching ON and OFF the applied DC source. The amplitude is measured on the DCVG meter as the pulse size, the milli volts size of pulse is determined by measuring the difference in extremities of the pulsing meter needle using the bias and range switches to bring the full pulse onto the meter dial. The pulse amplitude at test posts measured to remote earth in not the same as the difference between ON and OFF pipe to soil potentials measured only at the test post. To get full value and meaning from DCVG measurements, the ideal source is CP system itself set at the same level of output as normal operation. Some adjustment to the TR unit output might be required if signal levels are inadequate. Rectifier: If there is no CP system installed then a temporary CP system must be setup. Ideally maximum of 50 amperes should be installed. A temporary ground bed may be steel poles inserted into the soil, or any steel structure such as a fencing post, overhead power line earthing systems, scrap, steel pipe, etc. caution need to be exercised in order not to burn out the interrupter. The interrupter should be connected into the electrical circuit as shown in the fig, utilizing short wire of optimum 10mm in cross section. The black terminal of the interrupter should be connected to the cable going to the pipeline. The polarity connection in important, if connected around the wrong way the interrupter will not switch the DC output if this happens just reverse the terminal connections on the interrupter. The interrupter should be inserted with the transformer rectifier set in its lowest output setting and the transformer rectifier mains electricity switch in the OFF position. For TR with a known output that is less than 25 amperes, after the interrupter has been inserted and the interrupter switch set to the ON position and interrupting speed switch to standard, the TR should be switched on and the output slowly increased to give normal output or higher to give an adequate DCVG signal. Poor temporary anode setup is the usual cause of inadequate signal. With a temporary setup where the DC source are batteries, a welding set or rectifier with no ammeter it is important that the following procedure is followed in order not to damage the interrupter by passing too much current. Adjustment to ensure good signal require trail and error and patience but extra time spent in setting up the signal will give greater confidence in the quality of the survey, which is usually achieved at a greater speed than on pipelines with a poor signal. Measurement of the signal level at test posts are carried out in exactly the same way as ,measurements made to measure pipe to soil potentials, except there are two measurements in this case : From the copper wire or test post terminal to the soil alongside the test post. From the soil position alongside the test post to remote earth. Assembling the DCVG equipment: Thr reference probes previously filled with cu/cuso4 solution and fitted with tips are screwed onto the probe handles. The meter strap is placed around the neck and waist so that the meter fits snugly on the operator. The connecting leads are fitted into the meter and into the probes to interconnect the two probes to the meter. The meter function switch is then turned ON and the range switch adjusted from 4volts to 1000mvolts. With the probe tips placed in the soil the bias to the right hand probe is switched ON. The bias to the left hand probe is not switched on, it is a spare available if needed, also to increase the amount of bias available should that from one handle not be sufficient because of large background DC in the soil. Move to the test point at which the signal is to be measured. With right hand probe make contact with the soil and with the left hand probe or with the plug end of the left hand cable, make connection to the test point wire. Adjust the right hand bias control knob and meter range switch until the full extent of the meter needle deflection is visible on the meter scale. Adjust the meter range until the deflection cane be read accurately . if for example the meter is on the 1000mv range and the mater needle deflection is from 225mv in the OFF position to 850 mv in the ON position , the signal on the pipeline at the test post is 850-225=625milli volts. Having measured the pipe to soil signal strength there is another measurement that to remote earth which must be added to that from pipe to soil to give the full signal strength at the test post. In measurement to remote earth the probes are used like a set of dividers by starting at the soil position at the test post and moving away at right angles, summing the voltages observed for each position of the half cells. Remote earth is reached when two or more readings small in size are the same. The signal strength should be noted at every test post and all other potential monitoring points along the pipeline route. Measurements must be taken at either end of a section under Overline To Remote Earth Potential Measurement. Survey as well as the distance apart, as these readings are required for calculating pipe to remote earth potential. Similar measurements to that described above are taken from the coating fault epicenter at ground level to remote earth at every coating fault and are used in calculating the coating fault severity. Operating instructions: Finding a defect: Adjust the meter a range switch to the 100mv range, and ensure that only one handle bias switch is ON adjusted to position 3. This is all that is necessary for normal surveying. Place the probes one in front of the other. Contact the soil with the probes approximately at 1.5 to 2meter spacing. Turn the bias control potentiometer to bring the needle of the meter onto the scale. Keep the needle on the meter scale the whole time the probes are in contact with the soil. Look for the meter needle to be flicking in response to the pulsed DC. Lift the probes srep out from the test point at which the signal strength was previously measured. Move forward 2 paces and contact the ground with the probes. Use the bias if necessary to bring the meter needle onto the scale. Look dor a needle deflection. If there is no deflection then step out another 2 paces and then bring the needle onto the scale with the bias control. If there is a deflection observes the needle to see which direction the coating fault lies. If you are unsure either change to a lower meter scale or move the probe forward along the pipeline. The meter needle points to the probe, which is nearest to the defect. The interrupter if OFF for longer than for what it is ON and when it is ON the current normally flows through the ground towards the defect. It is the size and direction of the needle flick or swing that you are interested in. it may be possible that the coating fault is small and lies behind you so correct identification of direction of the needle swing. If you observe a deflection lift the probe which is closest to the coating fault and move it 0.5meter towards the defect. Bring the second probe forward and place it where the first probe used to be keep moving forward in this manner. As you move towards the defect the amplitude of deflection will increase so there may be a need to change to a higher range required. When the coating fault is passed the needle deflection completely reverses and slowly decreases as you move away from the defect. Retrace the steps to the suspected coating fault position where the change in meter needle direction occurs. At the approximate null position with the probes at about 1,5 meters apart observe any meter deflection. If the deflection is from left to right move the left probe 15cm to the right hand probe. At the point of no deflection, the coating fault location lies midway between the two probe locations. Scratch a mark on the ground at the midway position. Turn through 90 degrees to work across the pipeline direction. Stand facing the mark in the ground and repeat the coating fault location process described above. At the new null position mark the midway position between the probes on the ground to cross the first mark. Recheck the first mark by turning back to the original position and checking for the null. Where the two lines cross is above the centre of the coating fault voltage gradient and is called the coating epicenter. As a final check that the location is correct, place one probe at the epicenter and the other about 1.5 meters away placed in turn at the four points of the compass. At each of the four locations the meter needle should indicate a direction towards the coating fault epicenter. If this is not the case then the epicenter has been incorrectly located or the coating fault location is at one end of a long crack in the pipe coating. Determining the Coating Fault Severity: Coating fault severity which is related to its geometric size although there are other influencing factors is determined from electrical measurements taken at the coating fault epicenter. The size/importance or severity of a coating fault titled %IR is calculated by expressing the over line to remote earth potential as a percentage of the actual pipe to remote earth potential (the signal amplitude) on the pipeline at the defect Once all information about a coating fault has been logged continue surveying along the pipeline route. A special but common type of voltage gradient encountered during the surveying has a long sausage shape generated by longitudinal crown cracking in coal tar, ruffling in tapes, and micro porosity in asphalt coatings or where many small coating faults occur in close proximity. Whilst this type of coating fault is often missed during CIPS or Pearson surveys, their presence can readily be recognized by DC voltage gradient technology because such coating fault have strong lateral voltage gradients. Coating fault size shape and location on the pipeline: A good indication of a coating fault size, shape and location around the circumference of a pipeline can be gained by plotting of the equipotential lines of the voltage gradient at a coating fault in the soil surface. Start by plotting at a plotting at a point equivalent to 30% of the over line to remote earth potential. Track the equipotential line by the nulling method around the coating fault epicenter all way back to the start point placing markers on the way. The line will indicate the size and shape of the coating fault. The distance from the epicenter to the pipe centre line as determined by a pipe locator will determine whether a coating fault is on the bottom, side or top of the pipeline but this is an awkward way of determining this. A small discrete coating fault on the top of the pipe will appear as a circular is potential shape. The same sized coating fault on the bottom of the pipe will appear as an ellipse, distorted to one side of the pipe center line. Because the effect the pipe itself has in distorting the isopotential lines from the pipe centre line, it is easier to determine the location of a coating fault around the circumference of a pipeline on large diameter pipelines than on the smaller diameter pipelines. Some examples of isopotential plots of coating faults of different shape on a pipeline are shown in figure An alternative way of determine the orientation of a coating fault is to carry out the four points of the compass readings at each location keeping the probe spacing the same for all four measurements. If the coating fault is on the top of the pipe all four readings will be of similar amplitude. If the two readings to the side are much larger than those taken down the length of the pipeline then the coating fault is on the bottom segment of the pipeline. If one side reading is larger than the other then the coating fault is on that side of the pipeline. Calculating the severity of coating faults: The relative severity of a coating fault is expressed by the term %IR, which is calculated using the following formula: Fault epicenter to remote earth * 100 Coating fault severity (%IR) = - Calculated pipe to remote earth OLRE*100 In short version, %IR = - P/RE Calculation of the pipe to remote earth potential is an important figure needed to calculate the severity importance (%IR) value for a defect. To be able to calculate the severity of defects it is necessary to know the distance of defects and the DCVG signal strengths at test posts either side of the sector being surveyed. The pipe to remote earth potential (P/RE) is calculated as follows P/RE = S1- dx(S1-S2) D2-D1 S1= signal at upstream test post in = 800mv S2= signal at downstream test post in = 300mv D1= distance of upstream test post =0m D2= distance of downstream test post=1000m dx= distance between upstream test post and defect = 400m the severity (% IR ) is calculated as over line to remote earth from the figure is 130milli volts pipe to remote earth calculated above in 12.0 from figure given then % IR 130 * 100 %IR = =21.7 600 Deciding Which Coating Fault To Excavate And Repair: The coating fault grading is 0-15%IR characterized as a small coating faults. Such coating faults can usually be left unrepaired provided the CP system of the pipeline is in good condition and there are not too many small coating faults in close proximity. 15-35%IR characterized as medium coating faults. These may need repair usually within normal maintenance activities 35-70%IR characterized as medium large coating faults. These faults need to be excavated for inspection and repair in order to fix what could be considered a significant coating fault. 70-100%IR characterized as large coating faults. These coating faults should be excavated early for inspection and repair. The characterizations of coating faults given above are only one input but a very important input to the excavation and repair decision. Other important factors are shape and method of coating failure, corrosion behavior, soil PH and resistivity, presence of hydrogen sulphide in the soil, operating temperature, age. Coating type, leak and metal loss history etc. DCVG data for on shore pipeline: SNO Chainage (Km) ON (-mv) OFF(-mv) Potential Swing(-mv) OLRE(mv) Signal Strength (mv) %IR Remarks 1 0+000 1650 1091 550 2 0+300 20 587.50 3.404